1. What are the sources of zinc poisoning?

• Birds live in a zinc-abundant environment.

• Galvanised cages and aviaries may leach zinc.

• Toys and quick-link zinc clamps (often used to attach toys and panels of cages).

• Galvanised dishes release metal into food and water.

• Some treat sticks contain large amounts of zinc in the wire holders.

• Most powder coating is safe, however some powder coating uses zinc to speed the curing process and this can still be toxic.

2. What are the clinical signs of zinc poisoning?

• Dull appearance, listlessness and weakness

• Weight loss

• Gastrointestinal, pancreatic and kidney problems

• Polyuria and polydipsia

• Seizures

• Dysphagia

3. Is zinc poisoning fatal?

In untreated birds it is often fatal.

Birds with chronic poisoning often have signs of intermittent lethargy, dysphagia and depression.

4. How is zinc poisoning diagnosed?

• Exposure to sources of zinc and clinical signs.

• Radiology may be helpful but x-rays will not always show the presence of metallic foreign bodies.

• Blood testing for zinc levels. Blood tests may also be useful to check for organ damage and anaemia.

5. What is the treatment for zinc poisoning?

• Injections and oral drops of calcium EDTA twice daily for 3-7 days may be necessary to chelate the zinc.

• Tube feeding with bulk cathartics to bind zinc still present in the intestine.

• Additional treatments that may be needed include: high energy food supplements,

  a heat source, treatment of secondary infections and intravenous or subcutaneous fluids.

1. What is Trichomoniasis?

Trichomoniasis is a disease caused by a microscopic motile (moving) protozoa called trichomonas.

2. Where are trichomonads usually found?

Trichomonads are usually found in the crop, mouth, pharynx or trachea.

Other sites include the lungs and the liver.

3. What is the route of transmission?

The protozoa are transmitted by direct mouth to mouth contact between two birds or in contaminated water and food.

There is no aerosol transmission. There is no resistant cyst form so trichomonas does not survive in the environment for long periods.

4. What are the clinical signs of Trichomoniasis?

• Vomiting and regurgitation

• Weight loss with increased appetite - birdsoften select the smallest seed to eat as it is less painful

• White plaques and/or cheesy material in the crop and trachea

• Being "fluffed up"

• Green diarrhoea

• Dyspnoea

• Poor growth in young birds

5. Is Trichomoniasis fatal?

In untreated birds it is often fatal.

If the bird is severely emaciated it may die despite treatment.

6. In which bird species is Trichomoniasis seen?

Trichomoniasis is most commonly seen in budgerigars, pigeons (where it is often called "canker") and in raptors (where it is often called "frounce"). They can be seen occasionally in any birds and will, for example, be seen in cockatiels caged with infected budgerigars.

7. Do all birds with trichomonads have clinical signs?

No. Some birds can be carriers and show no signs even after several years of infection. The amount of trichomonads seen on a wet smear often correlates with the clinical signs.

8. How is Trichomoniasis identified in the live bird?

Fresh warm crop washes will display these highly motile protozoa at 100x and 400x magnification.

Trichomonads have four flagella and an undulating membrane.

They can also be identified on a Diff-Quick stain. However, during the process of staining, usually all the trichomonads are lost leading to a false negative result.

9. Are trichomonads easy to identify?

Yes, though they may be missed for several reasons:

• Warm saline was not used for the crop wash;

• If only small numbers are present they may be missed on the crop wash;

• Diff-Quick staining may lead to the loss of all the trichomonads.

10. Can my local laboratory identify Trichomoniasis?

No. Usually the protozoa will not survive the transport to the laboratory. Very occasionally they will be seen on histopathology.

11. What is the treatment for Trichomoniasis?

Birds can be treated with Ronidazole (Ronnivet-S) in the water for seven days. It has a wide safety margin.

Pigeons can be treated with a single dose of carnidazole (Spartrix). Metronidazole (Flagyl), has been also used in the past, orally for 2-10 days.

12. What additional treatment procedures may be needed?

The cage should be cleaned thoroughly daily and then disinfected. Quarantine all new birds until examined for Trichomoniasis.

High energy soft-liquid food supplements for emaciated birds.

Fluids intravenously or subcutaneously may be needed in cases of severe vomiting.

A heat source eg. a 40 watt light globe.

Treatment of the often present secondary infections.

13. Will all birds recover with treatment?

Most birds will recover.

However, birds that are severely debilitated and/or have extensive damage to the respiratory or digestive tract may not recover. Drug resistance is also now appearing in Europe to the available drugs.

There are many causes of sneezing in a bird. The occasional sneeze may be a normal occurrence.

In most cases if sneezing is regular and/or is combined with a wet nasal discharge further veterinary investigation is required. A wet nasal discharge usually leads to a brown discolouration above one or both of the nares.

Investigation of a bird's sneezing usually include choanal and sinus swabs for bacteria, fungi and Chlamydia. Other test that may need to be performed include mycoplasma swab, radiographs, blood biochemistry haematology, treatment trials and occasionally nasal biopsies.

Correction of a bird's sneezing usually involves environmental and husbandry changes and in many cases medication. Commonly the birds are on low vitamin A diets (an all seed diet) and are kept in poorly ventilated low humidity areas.

The causes of a sneezing bird include:

• Smoking by the owner

• Feather dust when moulting

• Allergies to aerosol particles

• Dusty environment/poor ventilation or dusty seed

• Sinus blockage with foreign bodies including seed

• Rhinoliths (build up of cellular material, usually related to vitamin A deficiency)

• Malnutrition, especially vitamin A deficiency hyperkeratosis

• Intranasal tumours

• Mycoplasma infections

• Fungal and/or Bacterial infections aspergillus cryptococcus candida

• Viral infection (rare)pox, reo paramyxo polyoma

• Chlamydiosis (Psittacosis)

• Iactrogenic feeding fromula and medications

In birds the only initial sign of a serious systemic disorder may be the sneezing. All cases of regular sneezing in a bird must be attended to promptly.

Viral infections causing sneezing without other clinical signs are rare in birds. Most viral infections in birds lead to more serious systemic disorders in conjunction with the sneezing.

1. What is "Scaly Face"?

"Scaly Face" is a skin condition caused by microscopic mites called Knemidokoptes pilae.

2. Which areas of the bird are affected by "Scaly Face"?

The mites live on the featherless parts of the body - usually around the cere, eyes, cloaca and legs.

In rare cases the scale can be so overwhelming as to be found on the feathered areas of the bird.

3. What causes the scaly appearance?

The mites burrow under the skin of the featherless areas of the bird. The changes caused by the burrowing lead to thickened skin and the scaly appearance. The damage to the cere or feet may be so severe that the bird’s beak is deformed or the bird cannot perch properly.

4. In which bird species is "Scaly Face" commonly seen?

It is most commonly seen in budgerigars, canaries, princess parrots, currawongs and magpies. "Scaly Face" can occasionally be seen in any species of bird.

5. How are the mites identified in the live bird?

Skin scraping of the affected area will reveal the mites and their eggs at 400x magnification. Multiple skin scrapes may be needed for diagnosis.

6. What is the treatment for "Scaly Face"?

Ivermectin drops to the skin between the shoulders or moxidectin orally are the treatments of choice.

Although only 1-2 birds out of a flock may display signs of "Scaly Face", all in-contact birds need to be treated.

Paraffin topically on the scales has been used in the past but is not an effective treatment and may lead to inhalation pneumonia.

7. What other treatments may be needed to fully resolve "Scaly Face"?

Vitamin A supplementation is necessary as affected birds commonly have vitamin A deficiency as a predisposing cause of the mites.

It is important to clean and spray with miticide the perches and all wooden objects to remove any mite eggs.

Beak or nail trimming and correction may be needed if disfigurement has occurred.

1. What is PPPF?

PPPF is a term used for the appearance of multiple feathers growing out of the same feather follicle. It is suspected to be caused by a virus though this has still not been confirmed.

2. How is the disease transmitted from bird to bird?

It is unknown how it is passed from bird to bird. Often only one bird in a collection of birds will be affected at any one time.

3. What are the clinical signs of PPPF?

Usually feather loss and self–mutilation of the affected area are seen. The bird may make the skin bleed and even chew deep into the muscle. Birds with PPPF are usually undergoing some form of stress — either behavioural or disease related.

4. On which part of the body is PPPF found?

Polyfollicles are usually found on the neck, thigh and/or ventral (underneath) sides of the wing though they can be found on any part of the body.

5. In which birds is PPPF seen?

PPPF is very commonly seen in lovebirds (peachfaces), budgerigars and canaries. However, it can be found in any species including cockatiels, lorikeets and eclectus.

6. How is PPPF identified in a bird?

There are two feathers growing out of a single feather follicle. Occasionally three feathers are seen growing from one feather follicle. Some birds have removed all the multiple follicles and so only a wound is left leaving only the suspicion of polyfollicles. Biopsies do not reveal specific changes on histopathology. Reports have suggested it may be a herpes-like virus.

7. What is the treatment for PPPF?

There is no specific treatment for PPPF. The secondary infections need to be treated. A non-stressful environment combined with a balanced diet may help during the course of the dermatitis. Treatment may include tests to exclude other problems including Chlamydia, intestinal motile protozoa, Beak and Feather Disease, Polyomavirus, liver disease and lead poisoning. If all tests are negative, behaviour modifying drugs including Clomicalm and Haloperidol have been used with reasonable success.

Some single birds respond to being given a mate. However it is unclear how the disease is spread and so caution must be used when introducing another bird.

8. Will any birds fully recover?

Many birds will go through varying levels of recovery and may have repeat episodes. This is especially the case if the stress is behaviour induced.

1. What is PBFD?

PBFD is a disease caused by a very small stable virus called a Circovirus. The virus is associated with beak deformities and the replacement of normal feathers with deformed quills. It is also associated with immunosuppression, often resulting in death.

2. What is the route of transmission?

The ingestion or inhalation of faeces or feather dust. Parents may pass it to chicks during feeding.

3. What are the clinical signs of PBFD in the acute form?

Vomiting and regurgitation with very few feather changes and death within 1-2 weeks may be seen.

4. What are the signs of chronic PBFD?

Feather and beak discolouration and deformities. Secondary infections to common illnesses are often seen in these immunodeficient birds. Birds may live with the chronic form of the disease from 6 months to 15-20 years.

5. In which birds is PBFD seen?

It is seen in all parrot species. The disease’s most noticeable signs are in the Cockatoo species. It most commonly affects young birds (in their first year) but can affect birds of any age.

6. How is PBFD identified in the live bird?

Most avian veterinarians can identify the feather changes in the common forms of PBFD.

A feather test for antigen (from viral particles) and a blood test for antibodies is available. Biopsies of the feathers and the feather follicles may also identify viral particles. A PCR (polymerase chain reaction) test on blood, feathers and faeces has also recently become available.

7. What is the treatment for PBFD?

There is no specific treatment for PBFD. The secondary infections need to be treated and a non-stressful environment combined with a balanced diet may help during the course of the disease.

8. Will any birds fully recover?

Birds with no antibodies to the virus are unlikely to fully recover and in these birds PBFD is commonly fatal. Birds that produce an antibody response may recover or become carriers of the virus. Some possible carriers include lorikeets, budgies and lovebirds.

1. Why is Polyoma different in budgies than in other parrot species?

Polyomavirus in budgies is the same virus as seen in other species. However the signs and course of the disease are more complicated than in other parrots as the virus may be present for several years. In other parrot species the virus is not usually present for more than a few months.

2. How is the virus transmitted from budgie to budgie?

Transmission is via the eating or breathing-in of infected droppings, skin and/or feather dust.

Budgies, unlike other birds, shed viral particles for up to 6 months after infection. They may carry the virus for up to 4-5 years.

3. What are the clinical signs of Polyoma in the acute form?

Death in birds aged 10-25 days. The dead birds have skin discolouration, abdominal distension, ascites (fluid in abdomen) and a swollen liver.

If the virus attacks the cerebellum (a portion of the brain) the birds will display head tremors.

4. What are the signs of long-term Polyoma?

Budgies that survive may show no outward signs and may develop normally but often still shed viral particles.

Many survivors will fail to develop their primary and secondary wing and/or tail feathers. These birds are called "runners" and the disease is often called "French Moult". The signs are similar to Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD). PBFD and Polyomavirus can occur concurrently.

5. How is Polyomavirus identified in the live bird?

Most avian veterinarians cannot definitely identify the disease on clinical signs alone though the age of the birds’ deaths and the survivors’ feather signs may be suggestive of Polyoma.

A PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) test on blood, feathers and faeces has also recently become available. Birds can be tested up until 6 months after infection.

6. What method of control is available for budgie aviaries infected with Polyoma?

First, stop the birds breeding. Birds less than 6-12 months of age should be removed from the aviary and not returned. Older birds should be moved to a clean environment in order to allow the breeding aviary to be thoroughly disinfected. On returning these older birds to the aviary breeding should not be recommenced for at least 1 season (6-12 months).

1. What is Polyoma?

Polyoma is a disease caused by a very small stable virus called a Polyomavirus. The virus is associated with feather changes in young birds. It is also associated with immunosuppression and can affect multiple organs in the body including the brain, liver, kidney, spleen and heart.

2. How is the virus transmitted from bird to bird?

Transmission is by the eating or breathing in of the infected bird's droppings or feather dust. Parents may pass it to chicks during feeding. Transmission may also occur in the uterus to the egg.

3. What are the clinical signs of Polyoma in the acute form?

Vomiting, regurgitation and death within 1-2 weeks may be seen. Feather changes are uncommon. Often bruising of the skin is seen and severe life-threatening bleeding episodes after intramuscular injections may occur.

4. What are the signs of long-term Polyoma?

Feather discolouration and deformities similar to Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease. Delayed crop emptying, skin bruising, tremors and weakness may be seen. Secondary infections to common illnesses are often seen in these immunodeficient birds. Many birds show few signs.

5. In which bird species is Polyoma seen?

It is seen in all parrot species. The disease’s most noticeable signs are in budgerigars. It most commonly affects young birds between 4 – 16 weeks of age but can affect birds of any age especially in eclectus, lovebirds and budgies.

6. How is Polyomavirus identified in the live bird?

Most cases of Polyoma cannot be definitely identified by clinical signs alone.

A biopsy of the feathers and the feather follicles may identify viral particles. A PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) test on blood, feathers and faeces has recently become available.

7. What is the treatment for Polyoma?

There is no specific treatment for Polyoma. The secondary infections need to be treated and a non-stressful environment combined with a balanced diet may help during the course of the disease. Vaccines are at present being trialled in North America but are not yet available in Australia.

8. Will any birds fully recover?

In birds under 16 weeks of age with no natural immunity to the virus the disease may be fatal. Older birds that produce an antibody response often recover and/or become carriers of the virus. Some possible carriers include budgies and lovebirds.

Pigeon paramyxovirus is a viral disease of pigeons. The virus has also been detected in other bird species. It has not been detected in parrots.

How is the virus transmitted?

The virus is spread directly from pigeon to pigeon, on cage material, feed and through common water containers. The virus can also be carried on the clothes, hands and feet of pigeon handlers.

What are the clinical signs of Pigeon Paramyxovirus?

• Severe diarrhoea (greenish watery droppings)

• Reluctant to leave loft when released for exercise

• Appear a bit “fluffed up” and off colour

• Reduced appetite

• Increased thirst

• Death may follow within a day or two after appearance of clinical signs

What is the treatment for Pigeon Paramyxovirus?

The virus does not respond to treatment although supportive care by a veterinarian may reduce the severity of the disease and increase the chances of survival.

How do I protect my pigeons?

• Vaccinate all pigeons in your loft

• Keep the loft and the equipments clean

• Isolating and closely monitoring new pigeons or pigeons that have been to races or shows for 28 days

• Disinfecting equipments used to house, transport, feed or water pigeons

• Preventing wild birds (and their droppings) from contacting your pigeons

• Limiting visitors to your pigeons

• Disinfecting shoes, washing hands and cloth if you visit or handle other pigeons

What to do if my pigeons are sick

Pigeon paramyxovirus is a notifiable disease in NSW. If you suspect your pigeons may have the virus call your private veterinarian immediately. The Department of Primary Industries will pay for testing at the laboratory. If your veterinarian is unavailable call the Emergency Animal Disease Watch Hotline on 1800 675 888. It is especially important to keep all sick pigeons in a flock confined. Do not sell or move pigeons to another flock until laboratory test results are available.

Does the disease affect humans or other pets?

Human infection with Pigeon Paramyxovirus has not been reported. Human infection with other bird paramyxoviruses is rare and usually occurs only in people who have very close contact with infected birds. The virus causes a mild conjunctivitis.

There have been no reported cases of disease in dogs, cats and other non-avian species that come into contact with infected pigeons.

Obesity is a problem often encountered with birds especially in your budgie or galah. Our pet birds are usually confined to a cage, have their wings trimmed to prevent flight, and receive little if any exercise. This, in conjunction with high fat diets, often leads to obesity and its associated problems.

What is obesity?

In dogs and cats, obesity is defined as a pet that weighs 15% or more than its ideal weight. While we don't have as clear-cut a definition for birds, this is probably a safe guideline to use.

What causes obesity?

Obesity is the result of taking in more calories than are burned off by the pet.

Unlike their wild counterparts, pet birds are not given the opportunity for daily exercise, which includes flying to escape predators and to look for food. Birds burn off few if any calories in their daily lives.

Additionally, most owners incorrectly feed their pet birds by offering a diet consisting mostly or totally of seeds. Seeds are not only deficient in many vitamins and minerals, they are high in fat (which is why birds like them: the fat makes them taste good). A high-fat diet and no exercise predisposes birds to obesity.

Are there any problems associated with obesity?

Obese birds have an increased risk of many diseases, including arthritis, heart disease, and cancer. Many obese birds develop hepatic lipidosis, also called "Fatty Liver Disease". These birds are extremely susceptible to infections and stress; many obese birds have been known to die just from the stress of an examination at the veterinarian's office. Finally, obese birds have a higher anaesthetic risk than normal-weight birds.

How do I cure obesity in my bird?

Switching birds from an all-seed diet to a more suitable diet consisting of pellets or crumble, fresh vegetables, and fruit will decrease its daily intake of calories. Be advised that birds that are hooked on a seed diet may not easily switch to the preferred pelleted diet.

Your avian veterinarian can give you tips on slowly switching the diet (a bird's diet should NEVER be switched quickly, as the bird may refuse to eat and literally starve to death).

If your bird refuses to stop eating seeds it should only be offered seed for 10 minutes twice daily and have fresh vegetables available at other times.

1. What are megabacteria?

Megabacteria are large rod-shaped fungi.

They are usually found in the proventriculus (glandular stomach) and the gizzard (muscular stomach).

Other sites include the intestine and, very occasionally, the crop.

2. What is the route of transmission?

Eating the megabacteria from the droppings of infected birds is the suggested route of transmission. There seems to be no air transmission.

3. What are the clinical signs of Megabacteria?

The birds seem to suffer a maldigestion/malabsorption syndrome.

Signs include: weight loss (usually seen as low pectoral muscle mass) with often increased appetite, being "fluffed up", unusual droppings - mucousy sticky droppings or whole seeds passed in droppings, occasional vomiting and or a swollen abdomen.

Reports vary in the number of fatalities. In most cases the birds become emaciated and may die of secondary infections.

4. In which bird species are megabacteria seen?

Megabacteria are seen in many bird species and are especially common in lovebirds, canaries, finches and budgies. They are also regularly seen in all household and aviary parrots.

5. Do all birds with megabacteria have clinical signs?

No. Often there are birds that have no clinical signs. There is no direct correlation between the number of megabacteria diagnosed on faecal smears and the clinical signs.

6. How are megabacteria identified in a bird?

Wet faecal smears and occasionally crop washes will display megabacteria at 400x magnification. They are rod-shaped organisms much larger than normal bacteria. Not all droppings will have megabacteria present;

7. What is the treatment for Megabacteria?

Birds can be treated with amphotericin-B (Fungillin) by crop needle or, in aviary circumstances, by an in water medication (Megabac-S). The treatment period is 10 days. Post treatment the droppings should be re-examined for megabacteria. A large percentage of the birds will recover but some may still die.

• What is Marek’s Disease (MD)?

  MD is a herpesvirus that causes nerve inflammation leading to paralysis. It is also associated with immunosuppression and tumours, particularly of the eyes and skin.

• How is the virus transmitted from bird to bird?

  MD is spread by a bird eating or breathing in an infected bird’s droppings or feather dust. The virus can survive in the environment for several months.

• What species are affected by MD?

  Chickens, and on rare occasions pheasants and turkeys, are affected. It most commonly affects chickens aged between 3 to18 months but can affect birds of any age.

• What are the clinical signs of MD in a live bird?

  • swollen crop

  • swollen skin at base of feather

  • blindness

  • short-term or long-term paralysis of a wing or especially a leg

  • Birds may show some or all of these signs depending on the severity and strain of the virus.

• How is MD identified?

  There is no readily available test to identify MD in a live bird.

  Diagnosis is made by tests to investigate and exclude other causes of the clinical signs. These may include blood tests, radiographs and screening of crop and faecal samples for parasites, fungal and bacterial infections.

  A post-mortem with histopathology in most cases will identify MD.

• What is the treatment for MD?

  There is no specific treatment for MD. Secondary infections need to be treated. This may involve antibiotics, anti-fungal and antiparasitic drugs. In cases of severe illness your bird will need to stay in hospital for several days while it is stabilised, and fluids and nutritional supplements administered.

• What preventative measures can be taken?

  Prevention is generally in the form of vaccination, which is considered to provide approximately 90% protection.

  Infected chickens can pass the virus before any clinical signs are seen so health check and quarantine all new birds before adding to the flock.

  Frequent cleaning and disinfection of the areas in which the chickens are housed.

1. What is Lorikeet Paralysis Syndrome (LPS)?

LPS is a syndrome seen in lorikeets as a sudden onset of paralysis in both legs (bilateral) and/or clenched feet. The syndrome is also often called Clenched Foot Syndrome.

2.What is the cause of LPS?

The cause is unknown. In some cases an encephalomyelitis of possible viral origin has been suspected. Other suspected causes are vitamin deficiencies with some suggestions that vitamin E deficiency is involved.

3. What are the clinical signs of LPS in the acute form?

Signs include clenched feet and general weakness. The generalised weakness may be due to the inability to eat and drink adequately. A significant number of birds may die in the first 24 - 48 hours and up to the first week.

4. Will any birds fully recover?

Some birds may recover fully in a few days to a few weeks. A large number of birds that survive the first week will stay with clenched feet and eat and live relatively normally during the next few months. No long-term studies have been performed to determine how long the birds may live with the clenched feet.

5. In which bird species is LPS seen?

It is commonly seen in wild rainbow lorikeets though it may be seen in all types of aviary and pet lorikeets as well.

6. How is LPS identified in lorikeets?

A diagnosis is made by excluding other causes of bilateral paralysis. These include trauma, lead poisoning, swollen kidneys, heavy metal poisoning, organophosphate poisoning, nutritional deficiencies and bacterial infections. Other causes of paralysis may be due to generalised weakness from septicaemia, parasites and/or metabolic disease. Testing would include radiography, biochemistry, haematology, faecal smears and faecal gram stains in order to exclude these other diagnoses. Treatment trials for the above diseases may also be necessary to exclude some of the causes of paralysis.

7. What is the treatment for LPS?

There is no specific treatment for LPS. The secondary infections, nutritional deficiencies and inflammation need to be treated. This may include antibiotics, corticosteroids and vitamin injections. Fluid therapy is normally necessary in the first 24 - 48 hours either by crop tube or by injection. Exercising the clenched foot by opening it to its normal shape and then "bicycling" the legs 2 - 3 times daily may be beneficial.

1. What is an overgrown beak and when is it a problem?

An upper beak is overgrown if it is longer than normal for birds of that particular species. It is a problem if a bird cannot eat properly or has other underlying causes of beak overgrowth.

2. What are the non-infectious causes of a long beak?

Causes of a long beak can include dietary problems, particular breeding or beak damage. Occasionally it may be caused by a bird not grinding its beak correctly although this is rare.

3. What diseases can cause an overgrown beak?

Chronic liver disease is a common cause of long beaks. Affected birds often have bruises on their beaks. Other causes include diseases that affect the beak growth plate such as scaly face mites, cere abscesses and sinus infections. (The growth plate is at the edge of the skin and beak, and is the area from which the beak continually grows.)

Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) and Polyomavirus are also common viral problems that may lead to an overgrown beak.

4. What diagnostic tests are needed on affected birds?

Samples may need to be taken for microscopic examination to look for mites and other infections of the beak growth plate.

For sinus infections, tests for Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) and bacteria may also be required. Blood tests are commonly performed to diagnose chronic liver disease. In some cases PBFD and Polyomavirus tests may be needed.

5. Which birds are more likely to have overgrown beaks?

Overgrown beaks are commonly seen in budgerigars, African lovebirds (Agapornis spp.), cockatoos, cockatiels, eclectus and canaries.

6. Should the beak be clipped?

The beak may be need regular clipping and remodelling. However, continued beak clips without diagnosis may miss an underlying disease or problem. In many cases chronic liver disease is involved and the birds may bruise and bleed easily. Since birds may bleed a lot after beak clipping, it is not advisable to clip beaks until tests for liver disease have been performed.

7. What treatment is available for overgrown beaks?

In most cases dietary changes will be needed. This usually includes changing to a pellet or crumble diet from seed. In many cases other diseases need to be treated either after several diagnostic tests or as a treatment trial for the most common causes of overgrown beaks.

1. What are the signs of liver disease in birds?

In acute liver disease the liver is usually enlarged. The urates (the white area of the droppings) often become green in colour. The bird may be fluffed-up and have watery droppings.

In chronic liver disease the liver may or may not be swollen and the urates may or may not be green. Affected birds may have long upper beaks with bruises on them and bruises on their claws. The bruises are due to poor blood clotting. Some birds may have seizures (fits). Green coloured feathers may become yellow.

2. What are the non-infectious causes of liver disease?

The most common cause of liver disease is too much fat in the diet. Healthy liver cells are replaced by swollen pale fatty liver cells that don’t function optimally. The bird is then prone to other illnesses. Other causes of liver disease include toxins such as pesticides, certain plants, metal poisoning from wire and cage furniture, and poisoning from fungal toxins on contaminated seed.

3. What are the infectious causes of liver disease?

The most common infectious causes of liver disease are bacteria as well as Chlamydophilosis (Chlamydiosis). Other infectious causes include viruses such as Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD), polyomavirus and herpesviruses. Parasites such as trematodes (flukes) and protozoa (Atoxoplasma) can also cause liver damage.

4. What diagnostic tests are needed for affected birds?

A blood sample for biochemistry and haematology can help determine how much liver damage has occurred. Other specific disease tests include chlamydophila (chlamydia) bacterial cultures and checks for viruses such as PBFD and polyomavirus. Tests are also available for mycotoxins and parasites. Radiographs may also be useful. Sometimes a liver biopsy may be necessary.

5. How can I prevent liver disease in my bird?

A broad diet based on pellets, cleanliness and proper quarantine of new birds is the best way for bird owners to prevent liver disease in their pet birds.

6. What treatment is available for liver disease?

In most cases dietary changes will be needed. This usually includes changing to a pellet or crumble diet from seed. Vegetables and fruit and Australian tree blossoms also need to be added to the diet. In many cases other diseases need to be treated either after several diagnostic tests or as a treatment trial for the most common causes of liver damage. This may mean a course of antibiotics and other prescribed medicines to help the liver.

1. What is a lipoma?

A lipoma is a fatty lump that usually grows just under the skin. It can be found anywhere on the bird's body but is most commonly seen in the abdominal region or the chest.

2. What is the cause of lipomas?

Excess fat and low vitamin E in the diet are factors involved in the development of these fatty lumps. The body has to store excess fat and it is generally deposited in the liver and in other tissues such as the skin. In addition, some birds such as budgies and galahs have a genetic predisposition towards the formation of fatty growths.

3. What happens to a bird with lipomas?

The lipoma can be in multiple sites on the body. Lipomas can grow on the breast, abdomen, wings, back, neck, legs or near the tail’s preen gland. They can also grow inside the body. Lipomas on the breast can irritate the bird causing it to bite and chew at the area leading to ulceration and bleeding (haemmorhage). The tissue inside large lipomas can also die off leading to bacterial infection which may eventually spread throughout the body, causing damage to the internal organs, such as the liver and kidneys. In addition, lipomas, depending upon their size and location, can cause physical obstruction eg Lipomas that grow near the vent (cloaca) stop the bird passing urine and faeces.

4. What tests are needed on affected birds?

A blood test is conducted to assess the extent of liver involvement and if any of the other major organs such as the kidneys are damaged.

The characrteristics and numbers of red and white blood cells may also be assessed to see if the lipoma has a necrotic (rotting) centre which means the bird may be in danger of serious bacterial infection (septicaemia).

An obese lethargic bird with lipomas should also be tested for thyroid dysfunction.

5. Which birds are more likely to have lipomas?

Lipomas are most commonly seen in budgies, galahs, rosellas, cockatoos, Amazons and cockatiels, but can be seen in any bird on a high fat diet.

6. Should the lipoma be removed?

Depending on the size and severity the lipoma may need to be surgically removed eg the lump is necrotic inside or haemorrhaging badly. It may also need to be removed if it is blocking the cloaca and the bird cannot pass its droppings.

7. What other treatment is available for lipomas?

In most cases we treat the lipoma initially with dietary changes to radically reduce fat in the diet and we also increase the bird’s daily exercise. This means changing the bird away from fatty seed such as sunflower seed and on to a broader based diet that includes fruit, vegetables, pellets and natural Australian blossums if it is an Australian bird. Increasing vitamin E and biotin in the diet can also help. In the majority of cases the lump size will reduce and the need for major surgery will be reduced or eliminated altogether.

1. What metals cause heavy metal poisoning?

Heavy metal poisoning is commonly caused by lead, zinc and copper.

2. What are the sources of heavy metal poisoning?

There are many sources of heavy metal poisoning in a bird’s environment. Examples include:

• Galvanised cages and aviaries which may leach zinc

• Rusty toys such as bells, metal ties and quick-link zinc clamps (to attach toys to cages)

• Galvanised dishes release metal into the food and water

• Some treat sticks contain large amounts of zinc in the wire holders

• Lead paint and solder on walls and windowsills

• Copper wires from electrical appliances

• Costume jewellery

• Most powder coating on bird cages is safe, however some powder coating uses zinc to speed the curing process and this can still be toxic.

3. What are the clinical signs of heavy metal poisoning?

The most common signs are:

• Gastrointestinal, pancreatic and kidney problems (vomiting and diarrhoea)

• Polyuria and polydipsia (increased drinking and increased urine)

Other signs include:

• Dull appearance, listlessness and weakness

• Weight loss

• Seizures

• Dysphagia (difficulty eating)

• Skin, feather and feet chewing

4. Is heavy metal poisoning fatal?

In untreated birds it is often fatal. Birds with chronic poisoning often have signs of intermittent tiredness, dysphagia and depression.

5. How is heavy metal poisoning diagnosed?

• History of exposure to sources of heavy metal and clinical signs.

• Radiology (x-rays) to show the presence of metallic foreign bodies may be helpful but will not always be diagnostic.

• Blood testing for lead levels. Blood tests for zinc and copper levels are available but are not always reliable.

• Blood tests may also be useful to check for organ damage and anaemia.

6. What is the treatment for heavy metal poisoning?

• Injections of calciumEDTA twice daily for 3-7 days may be necessary to chelate the metal.

• Tube feeding with bulk cathartics to bind metal still present in the intestine.

• Additional treatments that may be needed include: high energy food supplements, a heat source, treatment of secondary infections and intravenous or subcutaneous fluids.

Feather picking is not an uncommon problem in many parrot species. The causes are many and in most cases there is more than one problem contributing to the feather picking. The diagnosis can involve numerous tests and treatment trials to determine if there are concurrent disease, nutritional and /or behavioural problems. Nutritional and husbandry problems are generally involved in the majority of cases.

Infectious Diseases

• Viral Diseases

  • Beak and Feather disease, Polyomavirus, Poxvirus

• Bacterial diseases of the skin (usually secondary infections)

  • Including staphylococcus, Streptococcus, gram negative infections and Mycobacteria

• Chlamydia

• Fungal disease of the skin and feathers

• External parasites

  • Mites and lice (an uncommon cause of feather picking and self-mutilation)

• Internal parasites

  • Protozoa (giardia, hexamita, cochlosoma), worms and coccidia

Non-Infectious

• Nutritional deficiencies (commonly involved in most feather picking)

  • Especially all seed diets are a problem

• Allergies to food, aerosol particles and in contact substances

• Poisons and toxins

  • Heavy metal (lead, zinc and copper), nicotine and plant poisons

• Metabolic and organ Disease

  • Especially liver, kidney and airsac problems

• Psittacine Pruritic Polyfolliculosis

• Skin growths and lumps

  • Trauma, wing clipping, feather cysts, tumours, abscesses, adhesions and granulomas

• internal Tumours

Behavioural Problems

• Boredom. Lack of a mate or friend. Lack of visual, tactile and aural stimulation. Lack of regular flying time, sunlight and showers. Birds that are threatened or insecure.

• Hormonal, especially in breeding season

• Moulting

1. What are feather mites?

Feather mites are tiny parasites that live on birds' feathers. They are different from the mites that live on the skin or in the nests of birds.

2. Do feather mites cause disease?

Feather mites usually only cause mild problems in pet birds. In high numbers, feather mites can chew the feathers and cause them to appear untidy. Birds with high numbers of feather mites sometimes appear prurutic (itchy) as they try to clean the mites off, however this is not common.

3. Do feather mites cause feather picking?

Feather mites are rarely the main cause of feather picking. Feather picking has many causes and tests are needed to identify these causes.

4. Where do feather mites come from?

Feather mites cannot survive in the environment for very long and spread to pet birds by crawling from other infected birds or feathers.

Birds that are housed outdoors can catch feather mites from wild birds that land on the cage or feathers that float into the cage.

5. Can I catch feather mites from my bird?

Feather mites cannot survive on mammals (including people) for long periods. Feather mites that fall off birds will die unless they find another bird to live on.

6. How can feather mites be diagnosed?

Feather mites can be seen as tiny dots when the feathers are held up to a light. The mites and their eggs can also be identified using a microscope.

Your veterinarian will check your bird's feathers for mites at the yearly well-bird health check.

7. Can feather mites be treated?

Feather mites can be treated using an avian-safe mite spray. Repeating the treatment 2 weeks later is recommended.

To avoid re-infection, house birds away from wild birds and in uncrowded conditions.

1. What causes egg binding?

Egg binding is an emergency medical condition when a female bird is unable to lay an egg.

There are many factors that can increase the risk of egg binding. These include a diet which is low in calcium (e.g. all seed diets), obesity, egg deformities (e.g. over-sized egg), hereditary causes, excessive egg laying and hormonal issues.

2. Are certain birds prone to develop egg binding?

Yes. Budgerigars, canaries, cockatiels, finches and lovebirds most frequently have problems related to egg laying, although any bird can become egg bound.

3. How can I tell if my bird is egg bound?

Clinical signs that may indicate that your bird is egg bound include:

• depressed demeanour, fluffed up appearance

• unable to perch or may often sit on the bottom of the cage or in food bowl

• tail bobbing

• straining to lay an egg

• paralysis of one or both legs (due to the egg putting pressure on the nerves that control the legs)

• vomiting

• swollen abdomen

Since the signs associated with egg binding are also seen in sick birds with other illnesses, diagnostic testing, such as x-rays, is essential in formulating a proper diagnosis.

4. How does the veterinarian diagnose egg binding?

The veterinarian may gently palpate (feel) the retained egg during the physical examination. Radiographs may also be needed to diagnose egg binding.

5. How is egg binding treated?

Treatment options depend on the clinical presentation and severity of the condition.

Medical treatment

Supportive treatment is offered in the form of subcutaneous fluids, heat and assisted feeding. Injectable calcium and oxytocin and/or prostaglandin gel may be used to assist in muscle contraction to expel the egg. If the egg is near the cloacal opening, your veterinarian may be able to gently extract it.

More advanced treatment

Eggs that do not pass with drug therapy require more invasive treatment. The veterinarian may need to place a needle through the abdomen into the egg shell and aspirate the contents of the egg, causing the shell to collapse. The shell will usually pass out of the bird within a few days. Failing this, surgery may be performed to remove the egg or shell fragments.

6. Can egg binding be prevented?

• Birds that are obese should have their diet modified to assist in weightloss. An appropriate diet can be discussed with your veterinarian.

• Oral calcium supplementation is recommended, especially in chronic egg layers.

• Husbandry modification is also important to try and decrease hormones that may lead to egg laying. Such modifications include extending night periods, taking food out of the cage overnight, removing any nesting material and restricting access to male birds.

• Hormonal drug therapy may be required, especially in chronic egg layers. This option can be discussed in more detail with your veterinarian.

• Surgery to remove the reproductive tract may be a last resort option.